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The Zagros Mountains are a in , northern , and southeastern . The mountain range has a total length of . The Zagros range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of southeastern Turkey and northeastern Iraq. From this border region, the range continues southeast to the waters of the . It spans the southern parts of the Armenian highlands, and the whole length of the western and southwestern , ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is Mount , at .


Geology
The Zagros fold and thrust belt was mainly formed by the collision of two , the and the .
(1980). 9780895770875, Reader's Digest Association, Inc. .
This collision mainly happened during the (about 25–5 mya or million years ago) and folded the entirety of the rocks that had been deposited from the (541–242 mya) to the (66 mya – present) in the passive continental margin on the Arabian Plate. However, the of oceanic crust during the (145–66 mya), and the collision in the (56–34 mya) both had major effects on uplifts in the northeastern parts of the belt.

The process of collision continues to the present, and as the Arabian Plate is being pushed against the Eurasian Plate, the Zagros Mountains and the are getting higher and higher. Recent measurements in Nilforoushan F., Masson F., Vernant P., Vigny C., Martinod J., Abbassi M., Nankali H., Hatzfeld D., Bayer R., Tavakoli F., Ashtiani A., Doerflinger E., Daignières M., Collard P., Chéry J. (2003). "GPS network monitors the Arabia-Eurasia collision deformation in Iran". Journal of Geodesy, 77, 411–422. have shown that this collision is still active and the resulting deformation is distributed non-uniformly in the country, mainly taken up in the major mountain belts like and Zagros. A relatively dense GPS network which covered the Iranian ZagrosHessami K., Nilforoushan F., Talbot CJ., 2006, "Active deformation within the Zagros Mountains deduced from GPS measurements". Journal of the Geological Society, London, 163, 143–148. also proves a high rate of deformation within the Zagros. The GPS results show that the current rate of shortening in the southeast Zagros is ~, dropping to ~ in the northwest Zagros. The north–south strike-slip fault divides the Zagros into two distinct zones of deformation. The GPS results also show different shortening directions along the belt, normal shortening in the southeast, and oblique shortening in the northwest Zagros. The Zagros mountains were created around the time of the second ice age, which caused the tectonic collision, leading to its uniqueness.

The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of rock salt (acting as a with a low basal ), whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin. This different basal friction is partly responsible for the different topographies on either side of the Kazerun fault. Higher topography and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas in the SE, deformation was spread more and a wider zone of deformation with lower topography was formed.Nilforoushan F, Koyi HA., Swantesson J.O.H., Talbot CJ., 2008, "Effect of basal friction on the surface and volumetric strain in models of convergent settings measured by laser scanner", Journal of Structural Geology, 30, 366–379. Stresses induced in the Earth's crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting layered . Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks, such as (rock formed by consolidated mud) and (a slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such as (calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine organisms) and dolomite (rocks similar to limestone containing and ). This differential formed the linear ridges of the Zagros Mountains.

The depositional environment and tectonic history of the rocks were conducive to the formation and trapping of petroleum, and the Zagros region is an important area for oil production. and are a common feature of the Zagros Mountains. Salt domes are an important target for petroleum exploration, as the impermeable salt frequently traps petroleum beneath other rock layers. There is also much water-soluble in the region.


Type and age of rock
The mountains are completely of sedimentary origin and are made primarily of . In the Elevated Zagros or the Higher Zagros, the rocks can be found mainly in the upper and higher sections of the peaks of the Zagros Mountains, along the Zagros main fault. On both sides of this fault, there are rocks, a combination of (252–201 mya) and (201–145 mya) rocks that are surrounded by rocks on both sides. The Folded Zagros (the mountains south of the Elevated Zagros and almost parallel to the main Zagros fault) is formed mainly of rocks, with the (66–23 mya) rocks south of the Cretaceous rocks and then the (23–2.6 mya) rocks south of the Paleogene rocks. The mountains are divided into many parallel sub-ranges (up to wide), and have the same age as the .

Iran's main lie in the western central foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The southern ranges of the have somewhat lower summits, reaching . They contain some limestone rocks showing abundant marine fossils.


Highest peaks
The peaks that are at least 3800 meters high and have a topographic prominence of at least 300 meters:
+ ! ! Name ! Sub-range ! Height (m) ! Prominence (m)
1Qash-Mastan44092604
2Kale Qodveis4341424
3Pazane Pir42501080
4Kuh-e Dama4216504
5Kolonchin42212095
6Chegaleh4134594
7Haft Tanan4104653
8San-Borān41501928
9Qalikuh 40781420
10Shahankuh 40381427
11Qanbarkosh 3982316
12Haft Cheshmeh 39751545
13Cheshmeh Kuhrang 3969360
14Karpush 3961915
15Bel 39431563
16Khurbeh 3902915
17Darab Shah 39001495
18Piaro Kamandan 3891370
19Hezar Darreh 38901628
20Kuh-e Hashtad 38691248
21Chahardah Pahlu 3845949
22Dome Qalikuh 3839602
23Kule Jonou 3823422


History
The Zagros Mountains have significant ancient history. They were occupied by early humans since the Lower Paleolithic Period. The earliest human fossils discovered in Zagros belongs to and come from , , and Cave. The remains of ten , dating from around 65,000–35,000 years ago, have been found in the Shanidar Cave.
(2025). 9781576071861, ABC-CLIO. .
The cave also contains two later "" cemeteries, one of which dates back about 10,600 years and contains 35 individuals.
(2025). 9781585442720, Texas A&M University Press. .
Evidence from later Upper Paleolithic and occupations come from Yafteh Cave, Kaldar Cave near , and , near , Kenacheh Cave in Kurdistan, Boof Cave in Fars and a number of other caves and rock shelters.Shidrang S, (2018) The Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in the Zagros: The Appearance and Evolution of the Baradostian, In The Middle and Upper Paleolithic Archeology of the Levant and Beyond, Y. Nishiaki, T. Akazawa (eds.), pp. 133–156, Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans Series, Tokyo. Signs of early agriculture date back as far as 9000 BC in the foothills of the mountains.La Mediterranée, Braudel, Fernand, 1985, Flammarion, Paris Some settlements later grew into cities, eventually named Anshan and ; is one archaeological site in this area. Some of the earliest evidence of wine production has been discovered in the mountains; both the settlements of Hajji Firuz Tepe and have given evidence of wine storage dating between 3500 and 5400 BC.Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. New York: Harper Collins. 2000.

A human fragment from has been analyzed and dated to the . The DNA from this bone fragment shows that it is from a distinct genetic group, which was not known to scientists before. He belongs to the Y-DNA haplogroup G2b, specifically its branch G-Y37100, and mitochondrial haplogroup J1d6. He had brown eyes, relatively dark skin, and black hair, although Neolithic pre Indo-European Iranians carried reduced pigmentation-associated alleles in several genes and derived alleles at 7 of the 12 loci, showing the strongest signatures of selection in ancient Eurasians. He did not contribute to the genetic makeup of early European farmers or modern . Instead, he was the most genetically similar to modern Iranian Zoroastrians, followed by , , , and . Gallego-Llorente et al. (2016) believes that the Zagros Mountain was a plausible source of Eurasian ancestry in Central and South Asia, along with , which was inhabited by Caucasus Hunter-Gatherers. He cites archaeological evidence of eastward Neolithic expansions from the Near East.

During early ancient times, the Zagros was the home of various Pre Indo-European peoples such as the , , , , and , (together with Semitic peoples such as and on the western side) who periodically invaded the , and cities of . The mountains create a geographic barrier between the Plain, which is in modern , and the . A small archive of clay tablets detailing the complex interactions of these groups in the early second millennium BC has been found at along the . , near Shemshara, was occupied between 5000 BCE and 800 CE, although not continuously.


Population
The Zagros mountains have been inhabited by different groups of pastoralists and farmers for thousands of years. Current Pastoralist groups such as , , or move from their herds from the east slopes in summer ( Yeylāgh) to the west slopes in winter ( Gheshlāgh). Some major cities are located on the foothills of the Zagros mountains, including , , , and .


Lurs
The are an Iranic tribe, primarily inhabiting the Central, Western, and Southern Zagros. Cities inhibited by Lurs include , , , , , . Lurs speak and span across many provinces in Iran including Lorestan, Khuzestan, Chaharmahal and Bakthiari, , Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, and .


Bakhtiari Lurs
The are a tribe from , primarily inhabiting the Central and South Zagros. Major cities inhabited by Bakhtiaris include , and . A significant number of Bakhtiari still practice nomadic pastoralism.


Kurds
are another Iranic group found in the northwestern and the eastern Zagros , which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northern Syria. The high of the Zagros mountains produces a series of and perfect for agriculture and human development. It has also long defended the Kurds in times of war by acting as a . Settlement continuity in Kurdistan Yaghoub Mohammadifar & Abbass Motarjem, Antiquity Vol 82 Issue 317 September 2008


Qashqai
are a tribal confederation in Iran mostly of origin. Significant populations can be found in Central and South Zagros, especially around the city of in the .


Assyrians, Turks and Iranians
The Zagros is also home to populations of , and speaking .


Climate
The mountains contain several . Prominent among them are the forest and areas with a semi-arid climate. As defined by the World Wildlife Fund and used in their Wildfinder, the particular terrestrial of the mid to high mountain area is Zagros Mountains forest steppe (PA0446). The annual precipitation ranges from and falls mostly in winter and spring. Winters are severe, with low temperatures often below . The region exemplifies the continental variation of the Mediterranean climate pattern, with a snowy winter and mild, rainy spring, followed by a dry summer and autumn.
(1986). 9783882262971, L. Reichert.


Glaciation
The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (), Kuh-i-Lalezar () and Kuh-i-Hezar () do not currently have glaciers. Only at and some glaciers still survive. However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a depth in excess of , and during the Last Glacial Period to a depth in excess of . Evidence exists of a wide glacier fed along a long valley dropping approximately along its length on the north side of Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of . Under conditions of precipitation comparable to current climatic record-keeping, this size of glacier could be expected to form where the annual average temperature was between , but since conditions are expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier was formed, the temperature must have been lower.Kuhle, M. (1974): Vorläufige Ausführungen morphologischer Feldarbeitsergebnisse aus den SE-Iranischen Hochgebirgen am Beispiel des Kuh-i-Jupar. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F., 18, (4), pp. 472–483.Kuhle, M. (1976): Beiträge zur Quartärgeomorphologie SE-Iranischer Hochgebirge. Die quartäre Vergletscherung des Kuh-i-Jupar. Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen, 67, Vol. I, pp. 1–209; Vol. II, pp. 1–105.Kuhle, M. (2007): The Pleistocene Glaciation (LGP and pre-LGP, pre-LGM) of SE-Iranian Mountains exemplified by the Kuh-i-Jupar, Kuh-i-Lalezar and Kuh-i-Hezar Massifs in the Zagros. Polarforschung, 77, (2–3), pp. 71–88. (Erratum/ Clarification concerning Figure 15, Vol. 78, (1–2), 2008, p. 83.


Flora and fauna

Flora
Although currently degraded through and , the Zagros region is home to a rich and complex flora. Remnants of the originally widespread -dominated woodland can still be found, as can the park-like / steppelands. The ancestors of many familiar foods, including wheat, , , almond, , pistachio, , , and grape can be found growing wild throughout the mountains.
(2025). 9780817353490, University of Alabama Press.
(covering more than 50% of the Zagros forest area) is the most important tree species of the Zagros in Iran.

Other floral found within the mountain range include: , Astragalus crenophila, Bellevalia kurdistanica, Cousinia carduchorum, Cousinia odontolepis, Echinops rectangularis, Erysimum boissieri, , Ornithogalum iraqense, Scrophularia atroglandulosa, Scorzonera kurdistanica, Tragopogon rechingeri, and .


Fauna
The Zagros are home to many and species, including the Zagros Mountains mouse-like hamster ( Calomyscus bailwardi), the Basra reed-warbler ( Acrocephalus griseldis) and the ( Hyena hyena). The Persian fallow deer ( Dama dama mesopotamica), an ancient once thought extinct, was rediscovered in the late 20th century in Province, in the southern Zagros. Also, can be found almost all over the Zagros mountain range. In the late 19th century, the ( Panthera leo persica) inhabited the southwestern part of the mountains. It is now extinct in this region.
(1992). 9789004088764, Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. .

The Luristan newt ( Neurergus kaiseri) is a to a small section of the central Zagros Mountains in Iran. It lives in highland streams and is primarily aquatic. This newt is considered vulnerable to extinction due to poaching for the and habitat destruction. Climate change is predicted to strongly impact this species.


Religion
The entrance to the ancient Mesopotamian underworld was believed to be located in the Zagros Mountains in the far east. A staircase led down to the gates of the underworld. The underworld itself is usually located even deeper below ground than the , the body of freshwater which the ancient Mesopotamians believed lay deep beneath the earth. The region was influenced by Mesopotamian and religion in the Bronze and Iron Ages, and later by and Syriac Christianity. Today the vast majority of the population are Iranic and Turkic , with small numbers of , mainly and also extant.


Gallery
File:Zagros iraq.png|A road through the Zagros mountains in Kurdistan region, Iraq File:Wild Goat Herd, Zagros, Behbahan.jpg|alt=Wild Goat Herd, Zagros, Behbahan| herd, Zagros, Behbahan File:لاله واژگون در کوه دنا.jpg|alt=Fritillaria Imperialis in Dena, Iranian Zagros| Fritillaria imperialis in , Iranian Zagros File:سنگفرش راه باستانی در بهبهان.jpg|alt=Ancient Pathway in Zagros, Behbahan|Ancient pathway in Zagros, File:Oshtoran Kooh.jpg|Mount


See also

Parts of the Zagros Mountains


Other


Notes

External links

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